Yitro's Blueprint for Justice

 

One of the themes of this week’s Parasha, Yitro, discusses the importance of establishing a properly structured judicial system. The subject is introduced by Yitro, the Priest of Midian and Moshe’s father-in-law. As the experienced and well-established leader of Midian, he is aware that the founding of a fair, accessible and just judicial system is one of the most important pillars of any society.

When Yitro observes Moshe judging the people alone, from morning to night (18:13), he identifies two problems. The first is his concern for Moshe’s well-being, He is worried that, eventually, Moshe “will surely wear” himself “out” (18:18). The second danger that Yitro sees is communal stagnation. It may cause restrictions or a delay of justice and weaken the people, "so the people that are here with you” (18:18). In other words, justice that depends on a single figure, no matter how heroic that figure is,is unsustainable. 

“Moshe,” explains Rabbi Lord Jonathan Sacks, “must learn to delegate and share the burden of leadership.” (Covenant and Conversation, Justice or Peace)

Towards that end, Yitro proposes a model for a judicial structure. The court system which he introduces is decentralized, tiered and hierarchical. It includes the appointment of "chiefs of hundreds, chiefs of fifties and chiefs of tens” who will judge the people on a regular basis (18:22). It resembles the structure of a pyramid. Whereas routine and simple cases are handled locally, difficult cases are escalated upward by the chiefs at the bottom of the structure; difficult or precedent-setting cases reach Moshe.

As far as judges are concerned, Yitro does not ask for charisma or brilliance but moral reliability. According to him, they should possess four traits: competency, fear of G-d, commitment to truth, and display aversion to corruption.

This is the Torah’s first explicit institutional design - a blueprint for governance.

Though Yitro’s suggested system is not democratic in a modern sense, it is anti- tyrannical and is remarkably advanced for its time. In order to fully understand its novelty and unique nature, one must delve into the practices of the Ancient Near East, the backdrop against which Yitro formulated his scheme.

In most ancient Near Eastern societies, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, the king was seen as the god-appointed source of law, and justice flowed downward from him. Yitro’s system takes a very different approach. Instead of placing all authority in one ruler, it spreads judicial power among local judges chosen for their moral integrity.

This change is not just about efficiency; it reflects a new understanding of law itself. Law is no longer tied to a single leader but stands above all leaders, grounded in ethical responsibility and covenantal duty. In this way, Yitro reshapes familiar ancient structures to create a system of justice that is limited, accountable, and attainable, quietly but decisively challenging the royal model of justice that dominated the ancient world.

In a way, Yitro’s proposed structure anticipates key principles of the modern judicial system, especially in terms of accessibility, appeals and distributed authority. It marks the Torah’s rejection of solitary, sacralized power and the birth of what Sacks refers to as a “covenantal society” in which authority is shared, law is institutionalized, and leadership is morally accountable rather than charismatic.

Shabbat Shalom

The Four Stages of Redemption

 

                                                   

Parashat Va’era, spanning chapters 6:2 through 9:35, in Shemot (Exodus), marks the turning point in the Exodus story. After Moshe’s first failed encounter with Pharaoh, G-d reassures him that redemption will now unfold through divine power. G-d reveals Himself to Moshe by His holy name, emphasizing faithfulness to His promises, and announces the beginning of the plagues that will break Egypt’s hold over Israel.

At the heart of the h stands G-d’s great promise of redemption, expressed in four stages (Shemot 6:6–7):

“I will bring you out” – God will ease the people’s suffering and remove them from the crushing burden of slavery.

“I will rescue you” – God will free Israel from Egyptian domination and bondage.

“I will redeem you”  – God will act as Israel’s Redeemer through miracles and judgment, restoring their dignity as a nation.

“I will take you to be My people” – Redemption reaches its highest point when Israel enters a covenant with God at Sinai.

Classic commentators understand these four expressions of redemption, and at the same time, each adds a different layer to what “redemption” really means.

Rash”i, for instance,  reads the verses very concretely and sequentially. Each act of G-d is a distinct stage: relief from the burden of labor, freedom from servitude,                                                              redemption through miracles and judgments and becoming G-d’s people at Sinai. For Rash"i, redemption moves from physical relief to political freedom to divine intervention to spiritual destiny.

Ramba”n differs in his commentary on the term “redemption.” For him, the Exodus from Egypt is not redemption. True redemption, he believes, happens when Yisrael becomes G-d’s People and G-d becomes their G-d. Whereas the first three stages are historical, he asserts,  the fourth is theological. Freedom without Covenant. is incomplete freedom. (Mikra’ot Gedolot, Shemot 6:6–7).

Sforno, another classical Jewish scholar, sees the four stages as a movement from existence to mission.  The first three stages ensure survival and freedom from oppression and the restoration of dignity. The final stage, “and I will take,” he believes, gives purpose. Am Yisrael is not just saved from something. It was saved for something, to become a moral nation dedicated to G-d’s service. (Sforno on Exodus 6:6-7). 

Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch. Rav Hirsch reads these four stages as a pedagogical process. Slaves must learn firstly that suffering is not destiny. Then they have to learn that power does not define truth. Then they must learn that G-d redeems history. Finally, they must learn that Freedom is service to G-d, not independence from all authority. Each step trains them to understand what freedom really means (R. Samson Raphael Hirsch, Commentary on the Torah, Exod. 6:6–7).

Rav Joseph B. Soloveitchik interprets the four expressions as the transformation from a people of fate (victims of history) to a People of destiny(G-d’s partners in shaping history. The first three stages remove oppression. The fourth gives Am Yisrael identity and responsibility. Redemption is not merely being freed from Pharaoh; it also means being called to G-d (Reflections of the Rav, Vol. 2, pp. 88–114).

Rabbi Lord Jonathan Sacks explains that the four expressions of freedom show that Redemption is not just liberation from tyranny, but transformation into a People of covenant and responsibility. Sacks emphasizes that the Torah defines redemption not as liberation alone, but as liberation plus law. Many nations escaped tyranny in history.  Yisrael escaped tyranny and entered a covenant and vowed to fulfill its moral code and its values. Freedom without values leads to chaos. The covenant turns freedom into responsibility. For Sacks, the four expressions trace the journey from slaves→ to citizens→ to a holy nation. (Sacks, Jonathan. Covenant & Conversation: Exodus – The Book of Redemption. Commentary to Exodus 6:6–7 Parashat Va’era).

These four stages of redemption are the basis for the four cups of wine at the Pesach Seder-each cup celebrating one stage of redemption.

However, immediately following the four phases in the parashah comes a fifth one, “I will bring you to the land” (Shemot 6:8). Why is it not counted among the four? 

Rash"i suggests that the promise of the land, as mentioned in the above verse, was not fulfilled for that generation. He bases his assertion on the Torah itself, where it shows that the Exodus generation was redeemed from slavery but not yet ready for life in the land, so the final stage of redemption had to wait for their children — turning the fifth expression into a promise of future completion, not immediate fulfillment. Some scholars explain that this is why we pour the fifth cup, Elijah's cup, at the Seder, - a symbol of the redemption still to come.

                                                              Elijah's Cup (inscribed on it, Shemot 6:8)

 
Ramba”n disagrees with Rash”i. For him, all five expressions form one unified process of redemption. Even if the Exodus generation did not physically enter the land, the promise of “and I shall bring you” was still genuinely part of their redemption. A promise made to Yisrael, according to Ramba”n, can be fulfilled across generations and still be considered the fulfillment of that original redemption.

Parashat Va’era opens at the darkest moment of Israel’s story. The people are crushed by slavery, Moshe is disheartened, and even Pharaoh seems more powerful than before. It is precisely here, in the depth of despair, that G-d introduces one of the Torah’s most enduring promises — the four expressions of redemption. These phrases do more than predict the Exodus; they define what redemption truly means in Jewish thought. Redemption is not a single dramatic escape, but a process — moving from relief from suffering, to freedom from oppression, to national restoration, and finally to covenantal purpose. Parashat Va’era teaches that true freedom is not merely leaving Egypt, but becoming a people who live with meaning, responsibility, and divine mission.

Three Dreams, One Destiny

 

“Joseph was the great dreamer of the Torah, and his dreams for the most part came true. But not in a way he or anyone else could have anticipated.” - Rabbi Lord  Jonathan Sacks

Dreams are one of the main themes in recent Parashot. Parashat Vayetze narrates Yaakov's dream at Bet-El. This week’s Parashat Vayeshev, recounts two dreams experienced by Yoseph, Yaakov’s favourite son. Before delving further into the significance of these dreams and the connection between them, it is important to understand them in the context of the time and place in which they occurred.

Dreams, in general, have held a consistent and powerful place in human civilization—from politics and prophecy to psychology and art. Across cultures and eras, they were rarely seen as random inner noise; rather, they were treated as messages, omens, or revelations that could redirect nations and reshape lives.

In the Ancient Near East, the cradle of Jewish civilization, dreams were commonly understood as royal legitimation. Mesopotamian rulers recorded nocturnal visions as proof of divine endorsement, elevating the king to semi-divine status and rendering political authority sacred. Egyptian dream manuals, discovered in the Chester Beatty Papyrus, treated dreams as coded celestial messages decipherable by specialists of the court. Their purpose was not moral formation but statecraft, empire stability, and royal self-preservation. 

Against this backdrop, the dreams of Yaakov and Yoseph invert the entire cultural logic. Unlike Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia where dreams enthroned power, in the Torah, dreams serve a purpose. While the ancient world used dreams to elevate man to the gods, the Torah uses dreams to anchor man to G-d. (John Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament, 2006).

Yaakov does not become king by dreaming, nor does Yoseph become divine by interpretation. Instead, their dreams deepen covenantal obligation. We encounter their dreams which, in the words of Sacks, “came true,” yet “not in a way, the dreamers themselves, or anyone else could have anticipated.” (Covenant and Conversation Studies in Spirituality, Mikketz).

The dream that greets Yaakov at Bet-El and the two dreams that shape Yoseph’s destiny, according to some Jewish scholars, are not isolated mystical events but stages of a single unfolding covenant.

Though scholars such as, Rash"i and Sforno do not explicitly connect the dream narratives of father and son (Yaakov’s ladder in Bresheet 28:12-15) and Yoseph’s dreams of the sheaves bowing, in Bresheet 37:7 and the celestial bodies submitting, in 37:9), in any explicit comment, they create a conceptual bridge, indirectly, through one key motif, movement from revelation of choseness to its realization. Yaakov’s vision of the ladder reveals a cosmos in which heaven descends to earth, affirming divine presence, protection, and promise. The sheaves and the celestial bodies, in Yoseph’s dreams, mark not only his personal ascent but the historical movement of Yisrael into exile and eventual redemption. Yaakov dreams of Divine protection “I am with you, I will protect you wherever you go, and I will bring you back to this land… (Bresheet 28:15).” Yoseph’s dreams set in motion the events that fulfill that protection, physical, economical and spiritual. Yaakov dreams the Covenant, Yoseph dreams its implementation in human history. 

The one place, however, where Rash”i comes close to implicitly linking Yoseph’s dreams to his father’s own ladder experience is found in chapter 37. There (37:11) Yoseph tells his dream to his father. Rash”i notes that Yaakov “guards the matter.” Rash”i  bases his assertion on Midrash Bresheet Rabbah 84:12 which interprets this verse as, “Yaakov waits expectancy to see its fulfillment. In other words, Yaakov who once dreamed of his destiny recognizes a true dream when one is narrated.

Some modern scholars such as Robert Alter (The Art of Biblical Narrative,1981) explicitly connect Yaakov’s dream to Yoseph’s two dreams in our Parashah. He refers to Yaakov’s dream as a vision of space and speaks of a  (spiritual → earthly). Yoseph’s dreams, on the other hand, are a “horizontal axis of human power and family structure” strewn with socio-political symbolism (Yisrael → Nations).

Alter’s terminology is reinforced albeit implicitly, in interpretive trajectory, by Rabbi Sacks. Sacks describes Yaakov’s encounter “vayifga ba’Makom”*(Bresheet 28:11) as a moment of transcendent revelation and covenant renewal, i.e. a “vertical” moment of Divine-human communication.

In his essay, “Three Approaches to Dreams (Miketz” Covenant & Conversation), Sacks notes that in addition to the gift of dreams, the gift of their interpretation, Yoseph was also endowed with the ability to implement them, as we is evident in the next Parashah. There, Sacks sees his dreams as the start of a trajectory of political, economic and social leadership, dreams that lead to action, administration and implementation on earth (Yisrael → nations, horizontal).

The ladder at Bet-El affirms not dominion but a moral and spiritual duty. G-d descends not to enthrone Yaakov but to bind him to mission. Yoseph’s twin dreams of sheaves and stars do not coronate him in the mythic fashion of the Ancient Near East. They conscript him into service—feeding nations, sustaining his family, and ushering Israel into its first experience of exile. 

The three dreams are forged into a single symphony where destiny is spoken, first to the father, and then enacted through the son.

Shabbat Shalom and Channukah Sameach, Am Yisrael and Fellow Jews.

*“He came upon a place,” in Hebrew vayifga ba-makom, also means an unexpected encounter. Later, in rabbinic Hebrew, the word ha-Makom, “the Place,” came to mean “G-d.” Hence in a poetic way the phrase vayifga ba-makom could be read as, “Jacob happened on (had an unexpected encounter with) G-d.”  “How the Light Gets In” (in Covenant & Conversation, Parashat Vayetze)

Yaakov’s Dream and the Ethics of Divine Refinement

 

"He had a dream: he beheld a ladder standing firmly on the ground and sloping upward, its top reaching up toward heaven. Angels of G-d were ascending it and descending it. He had a dream: he beheld a ladder standing firmly on the ground. And behold, G-d was standing over him. He said, “I am G-d, G-d of Abraham your forebear, and G-d of Isaac. I will give the land upon which you are lying to you and your descendants" - Bresheet 28:12-13.

Who has not read or heard of Yaakov’s famous dream which is one of the main themes of this week’s Parashah, “Vayetze,” described in Bresheet 28:10-22?

It is theologically and symbolically one of the most defining moments for Yaakov and Am Yisrael. Up until then, the Covenant belonged to Avraham and Yitzchak. The dream transforms Yaakov’s spiritual identity and establishes him as one of the three patriarchs of Am Yisrael and the Jewish People.  It is not merely a dream. It is a blueprint for Jewish destiny.

Naturally, Yaakov is overwhelmed by the dream. He is aware of his own history. He is running away from Esav after having deceived him and Yitzchak. Whether justified or not, the act created a spiritual tension. Yaakov is alone, in the world and afraid for his life. The ladder in the dream symbolizes connection, the opposite of deception and, as it seems, provokes deep self-reflection in Yaakov. 

The sages believe that Yaakov feels this burden- and fears that he may have lost G-d’s protection. In the midst of moral uncertainties, comes the dream where G-d reassures him, “I am with you….I will guard you.” (28:15). Yaakov realizes that he is now a vessel of Divine purpose and must consider his own responsibility in carrying out G-d’s plan.

What follows is a series of events that are aimed at preparing Yaakov for this very important destiny. In a way, the dream marks a transition from the “manipulative act” to a life of responsibility and suffering where the deceiver becomes the deceived, by Lavan, his uncle and future father in law who circumvents him (by replacing Rachel with Leah, his oldest daughter) and repeatedly cheats him in wages.

Our sages seem to grapple with the tension between Yaakov’s identity as a righteous, straightforward man and the chain of deceptions he undergoes later in the Parashah. Here are some of their commentaries on this pradicament. 

Chaza”l explain the dilemma in terms of middah keneged middah (measure for measure). Bresheet Rabbah (70:19). It teaches that Yaakov’s deception of Yitschak leads to his being deceived by Lavan.  G-d wants to “educate” Yaakov through an experience that mirrored his earlier act. It is not vengeance or punishment. Rather, they assert, it is for the purpose of moral refinement and spiritual growth. Yaakov must confront his own behaviour through Lavan's deceit and grow from it.

Rash"i conveys the same underlying idea. While he does not explicitly claim that Yaakov was punished for deceiving Yitzchak, he hints at it. This is reflected in Lavan’s response when Yaakov protests, “Why have you deceived me?” after discovering that Leah was substituted for Rachel. Lavan’s remark, “In our region,giving a younger daughter in marriage before the older is simply not done” (29:25-26), serves as a pointed allusion to Yaakov’s own earlier deception involving Esav, for the purpose of repairing his own earlier deception.

Siftei Chachamim (A commentary on Rash"i's commentary on the Torah and the Five Scrolls, by Shabtai Bass 1660-1680), likewise suggests that Yaakov needed to experience what deception feels like to grow into the moral stature of “Yisrael.” Again, the purpose is to cleanse, refine and elevate him.

Malbi”m (Meir Leibush ben Yehiel Michel Wisser 1809-1879) echoes a similar message. Yaakov’s earlier successes come through cleverness; Lavan forces him into a situation where only faith, patience and righteousness can succeed. The deception, according to him, teaches Yaakov to let go of manipulation. 

According to Zohar (Vayishlach 21:221), Yaakov’s departure from Eretz Yisrael to the house of Lavan is not simply a physical escape from Esav, but a descent into a spiritually dark place for the purpose of elevating holy sparks.  “Just as gold is refined in fire, so Yaakov is refined in the house of Lavan.”  Lavan’s deception is the fire that purifies truth. 

The story of Yaakov’s years in the house of Lavan confronts us with one of the Torah’s most morally provocative reversals: the deceiver becomes the deceived. Having secured the blessing through disguise and misdirection, Yaakov now meets in Lavan a master of manipulation whose schemes far surpass his own. It invites us to consider whether the Torah is offering a subtle critique, a lesson in divine justice, or a portrait of spiritual growth forged through uncomfortable self-recognition. I believe it is the latter.

Avraham, the First Revolutionary and Moral Pioneer

 

“All other civilizations rise and fall. The faith of Avraham survives." - Rabbi Jonathan Sacks

“Lech Lecha,” this week’s Parashah depicts Avraham, the first forefather of the Jewish

People, as one of the most revolutionary figures in all of human history. He is unique in

the Torah and in world history because he represents a new kind of human being, one who

has transformed the relationship between G-d and humanity, between faith and ethics,

between individual and the world. Avraham stood against almost every value that his

surrounding cultures accepted as natural.

In order to fully appreciate Avraham’s unique contribution to world civilization, one needs to see him in the context of the world he was reared in, the Ancient Near East.

Avraham was born into a world that was idolatrous and polytheistic. The dominant theology in Mesopotamia, more precisely Ur of Chaldees, the birthplace of Avraham, was paganism. Though the Torah does not discuss the early years of Avraham, Midrash (Beresheet Rabbah 38:13) paints Avraham’s father, Terach, as an idol merchant. Midrash tells us that even as a youth, Avraham challenged this system by breaking the effigies in his father’s shop to demonstrate their powerlessness.

Avraham’s Mesopotamia was highly developed. Cities like Ur and Haran were centers of commerce, astronomy and administration. However, as the Torah’s earlier chapters, especially the one narrating the experience of the Tower of Babel, show, moral decay, violence and injustice were widespread. Humanity was seeking greatness without G-d.

The Ancient Near Eastern society also believed that humans were at the mercy of fate and the will of the gods. Kings and priests claimed divine or semi-divine authority and ordinary people had little spiritual agency. Empires were built on power, conquest and heirarchy. Against this setting, Avraham refused to worship power and introduced a cultural and moral landscape by emphasizing a unique, personal relationship with a one moral and invisible G-d who governs the world. Avraham founded what Rabbi Meir Bier terms as “Ethical Monotheism.”

Some may argue that other righteous and monotheistic people, such as Noach, preceded Avraham. “Noach,”  suggests Rabbi Bier, “isolated himself from the corrupt and immoral surroundings, and when G-d decided to destroy that civilization, he saved only himself and his family. Avraham, on the other hand,” notes Bier, “proactively and positively elevated the spiritual sensitivity and the theology of those around him, spearheading a spiritual revolution of monotheism.”

Lord Rabbi Sacks takes this point one step further. “The story of Avraham,” he asserts, “can only be understood against the backdrop of the story of Noach.” G-d, notes Sacks, told both Noach and Avraham in advance that he was about to bring punishment to the world. In Bresheet 6:13, G-d says to Noach, “I am going to put an end to all people for the earth is filled with violence because of them. I am surely going to destroy both them and the earth.” Similarly, in Bresheet 18:17-21, the Lord says, “Shall I hide from Avraham what I am about to do?....The outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah is so great and their sin so grievous that I will go down and see if what they have done is as bad as the outcry that has reached Me.”

Noach did not protest and did as G-d commanded him. He accepted the verdict. Avraham, as we learn later in the Parashat Veyera, challenges G-d and tries to negotiate the Sodom and Gomorrah's potential salvation.

Avraham’s vision, moral integrity, and rejection of the traditional values of his upbringing undoubtedly earned him the title of a revolutionary. Yet, in my view, none of these achievements would have been possible without the defining qualities that guided his every step, his unwavering courage and faith.

The worldview of the Ancient Near Eastern societies, where Avraham was reared, was rooted in tribe and land. People’s identities were tied to family, tribe and geography. When G-d calls upon Avraham and tells him “Lech lecha- Go forth from your land, your birthplace and your father’s house to the land that I will show you,” (Bresheet 12:1), He does not tell him what his mission is nor his destination. G-d is directing him to break away from that entire worldview, from the comforts of his home, from the wealth he has accumulated, and create a new identity and face the unknown.

Nonetheless, Avraham responds to G-d’s call with complete trust and without any hesitation. He believes before there is proof. Avraham’s faith is not inherited, it is chosen. It is his pure faith, universal vision and moral courage which makes him the prototype of a seeker, the first spiritual pioneer and sets him on his journey from paganism to ethical monotheism, from self-interest to covenantal responsibility, paving the path for the Jewish People and for all humanity.

The Rainbow in the Clouds

 

“My rainbow I have placed in the cloud, and it shall be for a sign of a covenant between Myself and the earth.”  - Genesis 9:13

“The rainbow is the symbol of a world safe for diversity - many colours, one light.” - Lord Rabbi Jonathan Sacks.

This week’s Parasha, “Noach,” focuses on The Flood which G-d brings upon humanity for its pernicious conduct, His decision to salvage Noach drives Him to enter a covenant with him and all living creatures culminating with the promise to never again destroy the world by water. This act, suggests Lord Rabbi Sacks, is when “morality was born.”

The sign of the Noachide Covenant, as the verse above mentions, is the “Rainbow in the Cloud." 

The rainbow, as many of us know, is not the result of any wonderous miracle but rather a natural phenomenon with a simple scientific explanation. Science tells us that a rainbow is the result of the burst of the sun rays against the raindrops.                                             

However, in this Parashah, the choice of the image of the rainbow carries a deep symbolic moral and theological meaning and has been the topic of interpretation by many of our Jewish sages.

Rash”i, for instance, explains that the rainbow is a reminder of Divine Mercy. Whenever the world’s sins might justify destruction, G-d “sees the bow” and remembers His promise not to destroy humanity.

Ramba”n (Nachmanides) notes that the bow, symbolizing G-d’s weapon, points upward, curving away from the earth.

Midrash Rabba (Beresheet Rabbah 35:3), likewise, interprets the rainbow as a bow of Peace. Just as the warrior hangs up his weapon, G-d has “hung” His bow in the sky.” It serves as a gesture of reconciliation.

The Talmud, in Chagigah 16a, proposes that seeing the rainbow is a serious spiritual moment where one is expected to recite the following blessing, “Blessed are You, Lord our G-d, King of the universe who remembers the covenant, and is faithful to His covenant, and keeps His promise.”

The covenant of the rainbow, as mentioned above, is not limited to the Jewish People but extends to “every living creature.” Its universality is what prompts Lord Rabbi Sacks to focus his beautiful interpretation on the symbolism embedded in the rainbow's many colours. 

For Sacks, the rainbow's spectrum of colours symbolizes unity in diversity. Each colour, he notes, is distinct, yet together, they form one congenial whole. Just as the colours remain distinct yet form one harmonious arc, humanity too is meant to preserve difference within unity.

May the light of the Noachide rainbow, the sign of the covenant that celebrates moral responsibility and human diversity continue to shine upon us and be a constant reminder that even after the storm and after judgement, there is Hope, Renewal and a prospect for Peace.

Shabbat Shalom, fellow Jews and every blessing to all

Parashat Shoftim - The Pursuit of Justice

 

“Other cultures discovered order, Yisrael discovered Justice,” - Rabbi Lord Jonathan Sacks

Parashat Shoftim, this week’s Torah portion (Deuteronomy 16:18-21:9) centers on structures of justice, leadership and authority in the Yisraelite society. While other portions are more narrative based or ritual centered, Shoftim lays out the framework for a just society and its insitutions.

There are four roles of leadership that are discussed in the Parashah. They are clearly defined and are aimed at ensuring the separation and preventing abuse of powers, in ancient Yisrael.

The first is the appointment of Judges and the establishment of the court system. The second is the king who exercises a limited monarchy with restrictions. The priests and the Levites  are the third. They are entrusted with spiritual and moral authority. The fourth role is the one held by the prophets who act as moral and divine authority, true vs. false prophets.

Don Yitzchak Abrabanel emphasizes that the Torah deliberately distributes authority among these four roles. Such distribution, he asserts, where each power checks the other ensures that no one branch becomes harsh or tyrannical thus creating a system that balances justice with compassion and morality. This essay focuses on the role of judges and the delivery of justice.

The Torah describes two main sources for Moshe’s education and knowledge of the court system. The first, Yitro, his father- in- law who introduced and taught him about the practice and its structure. The second, G-d who sanctioned it and commanded its authority and permanence.

 In Exodus 18:13–26), Yitro advises Moshe to “Provide from among the people men of valour, G-d-fearing, men of truth, who hate unjust gain, and appoint them as officials over thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens.” Yitro’s guidance also introduces Moshe to the framework of a hierarchical judicial system of decentralized courts, with lower courts handling easier cases and only the most difficult cases reaching Moshe. G-d’s Divine sanction and expansion in the form of a formal mitzvah calls to appoint (by recognized authorities, which the Sifrei, a midrashic halachic commentary, defines as the leaders of the tribe, and not elected by popular vote) judges in every city with justice bound by Torah law (Deuteronomy 16:18).

The criteria for appointing judges require that they be men of valour (Deuteronomy 16:18-20), possess “wisdom,” “understanding”  and be “respected”(Deuteronomy 1:13).  Ramba”n explains that these traits mean having deep Torah knowledge, the ability to apply principles to new situations and maintaining a strong reputation among the people. Judges should display fear of G-d , honesty, impartiality and rejection of bribes (Exodus, 18:21), (Leviticus, 19:15). 

This shows that the Torah envisions a justice system based not on popularity, favouritism, but on equality as well as moral and spiritual integrity.

The justice system established by Moshe was revolutionary for its time, compared to other main Ancient Near Eastern legal practices and structures such as the Code of Hammurabi, Hittite laws and others.

Firstly, the Torah decrees that justice comes directly from G-d “For judgment is G-d’s” (Deuteronomy 1:17). This makes law sacred above human rulers. Even the kings must obey G-d’s law. Judges are commanded to act as representatives of G-d’s will. In other ancient near eastern societies, laws were issued by kings who claimed divine authority but were, themselves, above the law. Hammurabi, for instance, claimed that the gods chose him to “establish justice,” yet not judged by the law himself. 

Secondly, unlike other ancient Mesopotamian cultures where laws were often applied differently based on class and status which primarily protected the power of kings, the elites and the hegemony, the Torah commands the system to protect the vulnerable, restrain rulers, and elevate justice into a universal principle of “one law for all” (Exodus 12:49, Leviticus 24:22). This means that even the powerless, the orphan, the widow and the ger (stranger/foreigner), society’s weakest, are protected (Deuteronomy 24:17-18).

Whereas in ancient Near-Eastern societies harsh punishments were common, reflecting power and deference rather than mercy, in the Torah, while strict, justice is tempered by compassion (Exodus 22:21-23) and limits on punishment (“eye for an eye” interpreted as monetary compensation). 

Finally, in other systems, courts were ad hoc and king-centered. Moshe established a network of judges in every city (Deuteronomy 16:18) and cities of refuge to prevent blood vengeance.

In his commentary on the parashah, Rabbi Lord Sacks states, “Judaism…sees society as the arena in which specific ideals are realized: justice, compassion, the rule of law combined with respect for the sanctity of life and the dignity of the individual. The Torah is a unique attempt to create a nation governed not by the pursuit of power or the accumulation of wealth but by recognition of the worth of each person as the image of G-d. 

Moshe’s justice system certainly reflects these principles. It is not about maintaining order- it is about creating a society that manifests G-d’s justice and human dignity.

The Spirituality of Seeing

 

“Open your eyes — the Divine is right here, in front of you.” The Kotzker Rebbe

“See, I set before you today a blessing and a curse.” (Deuteronomy 11:26)

Parashat “Ekev,” of two weeks ago astressed the importance of hearing and listening,

as evidenced by the repetitive use of the verb “shema” (hear, listen). In Last week's Parashah,

“Re’eh,” (see), Moshe is urging the Yisraelites to choose between blessing and curse,

"see" the consequences of loyalty or disobedienc to G-d while emphasizing the significance

of seeing as a mode of recognizing G-d in our daily choices.

Am Yisrael, as both Rash”i and Ramba”n suggest, is called here, not just to hear but to see clearly the moral alternatives before them. Re’eh is an order to open one’s eyes, perceive clearly and choose blessing over curse. Ramba”n empahsizes that “seeing,” in this context, is not just with the eyes, but with the mind’s eye - an act of deep spiritual awareness. It emphasizes perception, awareness and a conscious choice.

Rash”i further points out that the verse begins with the singular “Re’eh” (see) but continues with the plural “lifneichem” (before you [plural]). Rash”i reads Re’eh as a deeply personal summons: “See this as if it is directed to you alone, yet know that your choices shape the fate of all Israel.” In other words, Rash”i asserts that though it teaches each individual to see and understand, the consequences apply to the whole community. It encompasses both personal and collective responsibility.

Sforno suggests that the Torah could have said “Shema” (hear), as it does in Shema Yisrael (“Hear, oh Yisrael”). Instead, it chooses the word “Re’eh” suggesting not merely passive listening but active vision without distortion - a responsibility to look ahead, recognize consequences, and internalize Torah values.

Ramba”n also offers a different interpretation for the choice of “Re’eh” rather than “Shema”.  He explains that whereas to hear something is indirect and can, thus, be doubted, to see something is direct and undeniable.

The decree “Re’eh”  brings to mind the occasion of receiving the Torah at Mount Sinai. There, we are told that Am Yisrael “saw the sounds” (Exodus 20:15) which Jewish scholars found to be a most striking and paradoxical image. 

Rash”i, for instance, citing Mekhilta de-Rabbi Yishmael explains that the People saw what is normally heard. That experience was so powerful and overwhelming that the boundaries between the senses collapsed. That, in turn, caused their spiritual perception to be elevated to the level that they could apprehend Divine communication with absolute clarity.

For Hasidic thinkers such as Sfat Emet, “seeing,” as opposed to “hearing” symbolizes the transformation of faith (emunah, usually associated with hearing) into knowledge (da’at, associated with seeing).

Lord Rabbi Sacks also addresses the theme of “hearing” vs. “seeing.” In his commentary on the Parashah, Sacks states, “On the face of it, Moshe is appealing to the eye, not the ear. However, if we examine the role of sight in Judaism, we discover something strange. Often, when the Torah seems to be using a verb or metaphor for sight, it is actually referring to something not seen at all but rather heard. To reinforce his point, Sacks cites two examples from the Tana”ch, mainly the prophets, one from Isaiah, the other from Jeremiah.

Isaiah 1:2 opens, “The vision concerning Judah and Jerusalem that Isaiah son of Amos saw during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah: Hear, O Heavens! Listen, O earth.” As Sacks correctly states, the verse contains no visual imagery. “What Isaiah ‘sees’ is a call, sounds, speech, a proclamation, not a sight or scene or symbol.” The key verbs are “hearing” and “listening,” in the opening verses of the book of Isaiah. In Jeremiah, 1:11-12, claims Sacks, the prophet  “‘sees’ but G-d teaches him to listen.”

My article on parashat “Ekev” highlighted the importance of hearing and listening. I shared Sacks’s brilliant commentary on the motif of what he coined the “Spirituality of Listening.”  I firmly believe that it is appropriate to name one of the themes of last week’s parasha as  “The Spirituality of Seeing.” 

“Re’eh” is about cultivating a vision- personal, ethical, and divine. It extends to transcending the mundane in our lives to actively looking and seeing G-d in the world and in others, fostering a clear vision of truth and goodness, and cultivating a deeper connection to the Divine, all in order to witness the profound spiritual reality of a blessing and a curse.